白居易

Bai Juyi (772–846), courtesy name Letian, was a renowned Chinese poet of the Tang dynasty. He served as a government official but was repeatedly exiled for his outspoken criticism of social injustice. His early works reflect Confucian ideals of public service, while later years saw a turn toward Buddhist quietism. Bai is best known for his accessible language and stark depictions of the suffering of ordinary people, which earned him the title "Poet of the People." Together with Yuan Zhen, he championed the New Yuefu Movement, advocating that poetry should serve as a vehicle for social reform.

Bai Juyi is the central figure of the New Yuefu Movement, which revived the ancient folk-song tradition to expose political corruption and societal suffering. His two narrative masterpieces, "Song of Everlasting Sorrow" (Changhen Ge) and "Song of the Pipa Player" (Pipa Xing), not only demonstrate extraordinary narrative skill but also established a new paradigm for long narrative verse in Chinese literature. His famous series of poems "New Yuefu" and "Qin Zhong Yin" systematically address topics such as heavy taxation, conscription abuses, and the plight of women. By intentionally using vernacular language, Bai made poetry accessible to the common people, fulfilling his creed that "articles should be timely, and songs should address actual events." His work influenced not only later Chinese poets but also Japanese literature during the Heian period.

Bai Juyi's style is marked by extreme clarity and avoidance of obscure allusion. He prefers plain vocabulary, short lines, and repetition for emphasis. His narrative poems are structured with clear beginnings, developments, climaxes, and conclusions, making them highly accessible. He often employs direct address and rhetorical questions to engage the reader, as in 'The Old Man Selling Charcoal' (Mai Tan Weng): '可怜身上衣正单，心忧炭贱愿天寒' (Pity him: his clothes are thin, yet he hopes the weather gets colder so the charcoal sells). Metaphors in his poetry are drawn from everyday life—fire, snow, hunger, and crying—creating vivid emotional landscapes. His lyric poems are equally direct in expressing personal feelings, yet he can achieve profound philosophical depth in simple language. For example, in 'Grass': '野火烧不尽，春风吹又生' (Wildfire cannot burn it out; the spring breeze blows it back to life), a metaphor for resilience. His overall emotional tone combines righteous indignation at societal wrongs with gentle empathy for individuals, a balance that makes his poetry enduringly human.

Bai Juyi's thought was deeply rooted in Confucianism, particularly the doctrine of 'reforming governance through literature' (wen yi zai dao). His early career was driven by a strong sense of social responsibility, resulting in poems that criticize injustice and advocate for the poor. After his exile to Jiangzhou, he increasingly turned to Daoist and Buddhist ideas, especially Chan Buddhism, seeking solace in nature and simplicity. This philosophical shift is reflected in his later poetry, which celebrates the quiet joys of retirement, drinking tea, and appreciating landscapes. His famous phrase 'The vast sea lets the fish swim freely; the open sky lets the birds fly high' expresses his desire for spiritual liberation. Despite the change, he never fully abandoned his concern for the common people, as seen in his compassionate poems from his later years.

Bai Juyi's poetry had an immediate and powerful impact on Tang society. His social criticism irritated the powerful, leading to his political setbacks, but his works were widely circulated and even used as courtly entertainment in Japan. The New Yuefu Movement he spearheaded inspired a generation of poets, including his close friend Yuan Zhen and later figures like Zhang Ji and Wang Jian. In the Song dynasty, his influence persisted through the development of 'baihua' (vernacular) poetry. Modern readers admire his humanitarian spirit. His narrative poems, especially 'Song of Everlasting Sorrow,' have been adapted into countless operas, films, and television series. In contemporary China, many of his simpler poems, such as 'Grass' (Li Li Yuan Shang Cao), are memorized by schoolchildren and remain culturally ubiquitous.